Managing the Asian Meltdown Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Managing the Asian Meltdown - Case Study Example As a result of the country developing as a major industrial nation, the country begun to receive pressure from other economic powers in relation to liberalizing its economy (Corning 3). The labor, on the other hand benefited from Korea’s developmental state by mainly improving the Chaebol businesses and privileges for the labor unions. The Chaebol amassed more assets, which they used as collaterals to secure loans. In addition, the expansion in terms of development during the 1980s, created a favorable environment for labor and guaranteed a lifetime employment (Corning 3). The collapse of the Hanbo Steel was significant in the sense that it contributed to the collapse of other four group companies, and almost brought down the Korea First. Further, the collapse of the Hanbo Steel was significant in terms of revealing the problems that existed with the Korea’s financial system (Corning 3). On another note, the term â€Å"connected lending† in this context, means the focus by the Korean banks on lending loans for expansion to the Chaebol without considering the financial risk of accumulating bad loans. The country’s current account deficit increased inn 1996 as a result of a slowdown in exports. The government and investor’s view of the country’s economic development revolved around a lack of questioning the economic model (Corning 4). Further, the term â€Å"Asian contagion† means the spread of tensions related to the economic crises that caused investors to explore other financial markets. Korea’s initial position in regard to the assistance from IMF involved a focus on improving the depreciating won that was sending investors away to other financial markets(Corning 5). The person who contributed to the IMF-brokered bailout was Michel Camdessus, and the funds were to be used to replenish the country’s foreign-currency reserves so as to improve the

Annotated bibliography Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 12

Annotated bibliography - Essay Example The former one is completely opposed to this notion and instead claims that all that a person does is a result of choice. The question therefore is normally asked as to whom between the two is right. Whereas history does indeed play a role in one’s behavior, does it mean that the person committing a crime or violence is not responsible? This essay’s purpose is to assert that humans have freewill and that for every action taken, no one is really compelled. Decision and influence are two distinct things, which ought to be treated as such to avoid the confusion of determinism. Whereas, it could be true that one’s decision or its magnitude may be somehow influenced by the past, the actions taken by a person is not devoid of their consciousness and approval. That is to say, history may have a role in a decision but the person taking it is very much aware of it and by no means are they doing it without knowledge. According to (Cohen p.15), whenever one is taking a particular action there is full understanding and knowledge of its likely outcome and this therefore negates any claim of determinism. If every decision is taken based on the history then creativity and invention have nothing to be attributed to since they did not exist before. The proponents of determinism claim that a decision is greatly, if not fully, influenced by one’s history. For instance, if a man witnessed violence while growing up, there would no way to stop them from engaging in the same. However, Howard, George, and Diane (p.67), who reported that other factors that could alter a person when they are growing up, have disputed the above assertions. It therefore means that even if one witnessed violence, it does not automatically mean they will follow suit. The creativity demonstrated by individuals is not in any way influenced by experiences one had while growing up. Instead, the mind tends to focus on making new things. Similarly, one who involves in

Comparison of UK's economic performance with that of Germany for the Essay

Comparison of UK's economic performance with that of Germany for the years 2006-2010 - Essay Example According to the Office of national statistics, UK officially entered into economic recession in 2008, the first time in its history. As a result, the rate of unemployment among the youths rose by 5.4% (ONS, 2011, 41). However, this recession was officially reported to have ended on 26th January, 2010. By May 2010, its economic growth rate was reported to be 0.4%, and 1.2% by the second quarter (ONS. 2011, pg 32). For the last 5 years, the economic indices have been reported to be as follows; Table 1; Changes in UK’s GDP between 2006 and 2010 Year GDP (billions of GBP) GDP change (%) 2006 2.9 2007 2.6 2008 1,448 0.6 2009 1’396 -4.9 2010 1.7 Source: ONS Statistics As the table illustrates, the GDP was worst in 2008 and 2009 because of the economic recession. However, a positive change was realized in 2010. Economy of Germany The economy of Germany is the largest economy in Europe. In the world, it is the fourth largest in terms of nominal GDP, second according to PPT, it is fifth. It is second in world’s exporter, accounting for approximately $1.120trillin in its economy (ONS, 2011, 13). About a third of its national output is realized from exports, thus making its balance of payment favorable, compared to that of UK that is normally characterized by deficits. The service sector accounts for about 70%, industry 29.1%, and 0.9% in the agricultural sector of its total GDP (IMF, 2009, pg 321). Most of its products are from engineering, for an example automobile, chemicals, metals and machinery. In December 2010, German’s unemployment rate was found to be 6.1%, lower than that of UK’s 7.8% (Boyes, 2007, pg 65). In Germany, the lowest growth figures of... The essay is the best example of comparison of German and UK economic performances. These two countries have diverse and strong national economies. UK’s economy is the sixth largest world economy in terms of nominal GDP, and seventh in terms of Purchasing Power Parity. In Europe, it is the third largest in terms of PPT after Germany. The economy of Germany is the largest economy in Europe. In the world, it is the fourth largest in terms of nominal GDP. In 2007, the annual growth rate for UK was at an average of 2.68%, according to the IMF (2009, pg 321). Growth in its financial sector contributed a larger economic part, but this declined in 2008 when it suddenly entered into a recession due to the global financial crisis. This began with the Northern Rock’s collapsing and being taken over into public ownership in February the same year. On the other hand, other banks were also nationalized. Such banks included Royal Bank of Scotland Group, According to the Office of national statistics, UK officially entered into economic recession in 2008, the first time in its history. As a result, the rate of unemployment among the youths rose by 5.4% About a third of the German national output is realized from exports, thus making its balance of payment favorable, compared to that of UK that is normally characterized by deficits. The service sector accounts for about 70%, industry 29.1%, and 0.9% in the agricultural sector of its total GDP In December 2010, German’s unemployment rate was found to be 6.1%, lower than that of UK’s 7.8% In EU, the car industry is oligopolistic, rather than perfectly competitive Germany is the largest motor vehicle producer in EU, and it has become very hard for competitors from other regions to compete with its firms. the fact that the firms have captured reasonable market shares in their respective location has made it hard for other competitors to penetrate and survive in their markets

Mans Happiness Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Mans Happiness - Essay Example Like other subjects belonging to the realm of the humanities, the use of Philosophy is not that apparent as compared to the relevance of the natural sciences like Biology or Chemistry. Such studies have direct physical consequences. The effect of their absence can easily be perceived and felt by the Human Being. The absence of Philosophy, on the other hand, has no direct physical repercussion. The effect is something that is unseen; it is something that is internal to Man. The use of Philosophy lies in its capacity to help Man scratch that internal "itching" of his, his itch to know the truth. Just like what we have seen in the discussions, Man has always had that itch to know what the truth is. All the Greek Philosophers that we've discussed all try to do this by answering certain questions that boggled their minds. The Mileasans were itching to know what made up the universe. The Pythagoreans tried to see the arrangement of the universe through the use of numbers. Socrates concerned himself with the Interior Man. All of these Philosophers were trying to know what the truth is, as posed by their questions. That is where the use of philosophy comes in. Like these philosophers, we will also be bogged by questions in our modern world, questions that cannot be simply answered through empirical observation or experimentation. Philosophy helps us answer these questions. Supposing we don't answer them, the physical consequence may not be that great. When someone who earns a Billion Dollars a year for example, asks what is Man's purpose in life is for example and fails to answer it, he will not automatically lose his wealth. He will still be rich, but internally he will be empty, for he has not found any meaning to why he exists. He will be no different to a machine who works, round the clock. It may be efficient, but it does not know its purpose. Indeed, the ability to scratch that internal itching for truth is something that is very much important to Man. As what we have said, it helps him be more "human", that he can ask and know what the truth is about himself and the world around him. This care for the truth and the satisfaction of the interior side of Man is something that is advocated by the philosopher Socrates. As what we has been said in the discussions, Socrates asserted the importance of improving the soul; that truth and virtue should be given a lot if importance. If Man does not do this then he will not be Happy. This thought is very important given how the world views happiness these days. A lot think that material things could easily satisfy man, neglecting that there are certain things that we cannot see but still satisfies Man from within. Ironically though, whenever Man tries to scratch that sensation for truth, he ends up being itchier. Sometimes the way to answering a question is through another question. We have seen this in the Greek Philosophers we have discussed. The Milesians asked what the basic stuff that composed the universe is. Answers were given. Thales said its water. Anaximander questioned this and so on. Just like the Greeks, the modern man asks his own questions. It may be about the purpose of his life or even what life even means. Philosophy aids man in answering such questions,

Academic Success Essay Example for Free

Academic Success Essay No matter where you are in your life continuing your education can be a challenge. Being able to juggle all your responsibilities can be very hard, but it is one of the keys to success. Everyone strives to be successful in every aspect of their life. You must know what you want to accomplish and be able to create a guided plan to have the best results. Making sure to stay organized and set your priorities in line, will lead to ultimate success. The ways I plan to continue my academic success is by setting educational goals, perfecting my writing process, applying my learning style, and the importance of academic integrity. Goals Setting goals is a very important step to take in your life. It helps with the drive to continue school and the ability to obtain a lasting career. My educational goal is to finish with high academic honors at the end of my courses. Staying on top of my homework will not only have me stress free but will keep me on top so I do not fall behind. Falling behind on schoolwork can be devastating to my grades. Having a set career goal will keep you motivated and give you the drive to be successful. I plan to start off my career in an entry level position and work my way up to a top paying position. Having a top paying job that I enjoy doing, will allow me to be able to provide or my family. (Stratton, R. K. (2005). Writing Process The writing process is a critical part of having success in your education and your career. Perfecting the writing process while continuing your education can be very challenging in many ways. The writing process is broken down into steps to help ensure success; they are topics, subtopics, outline, thesis, rough draft, and final draft. By mastering these steps it ensures you will be successful. Many jobs now require e-mail and written  communication as a prime source of communication. Being able to communicate effectively will help increase a customer’s experience which in turn helps the business become more successful. (Hansen, n.d.) Critical Thinking Critical thinking can be used in all aspects of a person’s life. There are different steps and also different ways in which you can apply critical thinking. Critical thinking focuses on deeper learning, helps with problem solving, and helps a person explore many issues, ideas, and events before having an opinion on a topic or issue. There are many steps to the critical thinking process, remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating ( Ellis, D., Toft, D. (2015). When applying these steps in the order it will help in the critical thinking process. A lot of people use critical thinking on a day to day basis without even considering they are actually using it. The first step of critical thinking is remembering, it is consisted of reading, listing, and defining. The second step of the process is understanding which is demonstrated, group, outline, and describing the events or issues. The next step is applying which can be accomplished by discussing, explaining, and is used to produce your desired results. Classifying, determining, and comparing and contrasting make up the fourth step which is analyzing. Once done analyzing a person can then begin evaluating. Evaluating helps rate truth, judge effectiveness and rank-issues of facts in order. The last step is creating, in this step you organize your thoughts, plan, also you can agree or disagree on a topic. ( Ellis, D., Toft, D. (2015). Responsibilities You use critical thinking on a daily basis in all aspects in your professional career. When thinking about being at work on time, being prepared for daily tasks, and executing them properly you are demonstrating how to use critical thinking in the work place. Critical thinking is also used for responsibilities to society which is called societal responsibility. There are many ways to positively impact your society like paying your bills on time. Keeping your yard clean, recycling, and keeping up with household projects also applies to societal responsibilities. Sending your kids to school to learn and get a great education would be a positive influence on society. It is very important to keep your  professional and societal responsibilities at a positive level to have the greatest impact. Resources There are many great resources that are available on the University database. The course syllabus is made available to help you stay on task and make sure your assignments are completed and turned in on a timely manner. Instructor’s classroom policies are shown to make certain every student knows the rules to follow set by the individual instructors. Phoenix Connect is provided so students can come together to provide feedback and tips to new and seasoned students. The libaray is a great source to use and find resources like articles and books to help with your research. The Center for Writing Excellence has a great tool, the plagiarism checker and the resource generator, which helps with small errors and saves you time. There are many benefits and challenges associated with using outside sources. You have to make sure the sources are creditable to ensure proper information is given. It helps with providing different points of view from various people. With internet so popular in today’s time students have many ways to get great information at the tip of their fingers. Learning Style Knowing your personal learning style can help you advance in everyday life. My personal learning style is Interpersonal, mode 3. I am an active learner, hands on activities is where I excel the most. Mode 3 learning is consisted of testing ideas, being able to practice what you learn, able to thrive with well-defined tasks, and problem solving. An interpersonal learning needs to be provide with constant feedback to demonstrate success. An individual with this learning style is often found in medical fields and IT positions. Knowing your learning style will help you advance in your educational learning. Conclusion Having your educational and career goals in place with a determined outcome will help you advance in all aspects of your life. Perfecting the writing process will help you with resumes, papers, emails, and provide you the tools to be able to communicate effectively. Also making sure you use all the resources given to you that are right at your fingertips. All of these combined will ensure you are able to achieve the highest level of success.   References Stratton, R. K. (2005). MOTIVATION: Goals and Goal Setting [University of Phoenix Custom Edition eBook]. Reston, United Kingdom: Taylor Francis Ltd.. Retrieved from ProQuest Central, GEN480 Interdisciplinary Capstone website. Hansen, K. (n.d.). Quintessential Careers. Retrieved from http://www.quintcareers.com/writing_skills_on_job.html Ellis, D., Toft, D. (2015). Becoming a Master Student. Retrieved from The University of Phoenix eBook Collection Database.

Analysis of Migration Patterns in Afghanistan

Analysis of Migration Patterns in Afghanistan Migration in Afghanistan: 1. Introduction Afghanistan is home to the largest refugee crises experienced since the inception of the UNHCR. Decades of war have led millions to flee their homes and seek refuge in the neighboring countries of Pakistan and Iran, and for those who were able, further abroad. The number of refugees spiked in 1990 at 6.2 million. They began to decrease in 1992 with the fall of the government, but began to increase again in 1996 with the rise of the Taliban. In 2002, with the fall of the Taliban and the US-led invasion, record numbers of Afghan refugees returned to Afghanistan. An international reconstruction and development initiative began to aid Afghans in rebuilding their country from decades of war. Reports indicate that change is occurring in Afghanistan, but the progress is slow. The Taliban have regained strength in the second half of this decade and insurgency and instability are rising. Afghanistan continues to be challenged by underdevelopment, lack of infrastructure, few employment opportunities, and widespread poverty. The slow pace of change has led Afghans to continue migrating in order to meet the needs of their families. Today refugee movements no longer characterize the primary source of Afghan migration. Migration in search of livelihoods is the primary reasons for migration and occurs through rural-urban migration in Afghanistan or circular migration patterns as Afghans cross into Pakistan and/or Iran. Afghans utilize their social networks to find low-skilled work in the cities or neighboring countries. The highly skilled in Afghanistan often seek to migrate to Western countries, as the opportunities in Afghanistan are limited. Afghans transnational movements have led to the development of the Afghan Diaspora, which has been essential in providing remittances to families in Afghanistan to meet their daily needs. The Afghan Diaspora has been involved in the reconstruction effort and is a key contributor to development in Afghanistan. The continued engagement of the Diaspora is important to the building of Afghanistans future. This paper seeks to provide an overview of migration and development in Afghanistan. It will begin with a country profile on Afghanistan (Chapter 2), followed by a review of historical migration patterns in Afghanistan (Chapter 3) and a synthesis of current migration patterns in Afghanistan (Chapter 4). The paper will then move to discuss migration and development in Afghanistan (Chapter 5), the Afghan Diaspora (Chapter 6), policies regarding migration in Afghanistan (Chapter 7), and the migration relationship between the Netherlands and Afghanistan (Chapter 8). The paper will conclude with an examination of future migration prospects for Afghanistan (Chapter 9) and a conclusion (Chapter 10). 2. General Country Profile Afghanistan is one of the poorest countries in the world and has been inundated by decades of war, civil strife and poverty. Today, Afghanistan is central in media attention due to the US led invasion post 9/11, however the country has been in turmoil for much longer. This section will provide a brief overview of the recent history of Afghanistan, the current economic situation, the current political situation, a cultural overview, and the current status of women in the country. Historical Overview The modern history of Afghanistan can be divided into four essential periods: pre 1978, 1978-1992, 1992-2001, and post 2001. Pre 1978 Afghanistan was founded in 1774 by Ahmad Shah Durrani who unified the Pashtun tribes in the region and created the state (CIA, 2009). The country was ruled by a monarchy and acted as a buffer between the British and Russian empires until it received independence from conjectural British control in 1919 (CIA, 2009). The last King, Zahir Shah, reigned from 1933 to 1973, when he was overthrown by a coup detat led by his cousin and ex-premier President Mohammed Daoud (Jazayery, 2002). Opposition to Daouds Government lead to a coup in 1978 by the Peoples Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) (Jazayery, 2002). 1978-1992 Soviet Invasion The PDPA was a Marxist regime and from 1989 was supported by the Soviet Union. This was the first major flow of refugees from Afghanistan. The occupation by the Soviets was viewed in the west as an escalation of the Cold War. The West began to fund millions of dollars, which became billions of dollars, to the resistance forces known as the Mujahideen (Jazayery, 2002). The resistance forces operated primarily from Pakistan. In 1986 when Mikhail Gorbachev came to power in the Soviet Union, the Soviets began the process of extraditing themselves from Afghanistan and by 1989 the Soviets had left Afghanistan. 1992-2001 Taliban Rule In 1992 the Mujahideen forces overthrew Najibullahs Government. A failure of consensus of the new Government led to a civil war from 1992-1996 (Jazayery, 2002). Afghanistan became divided into tribal fiefdoms controlled by armed commanders and warlords (Poppelwell, 2007). The country was in a state of anarchy and Afghans lived in a state of constant fear of physical and sexual assault (Poppelwell, 2007). During this time, the Taliban emerged in 1994, claiming that Afghanistan should be ruled by Sharia (Islamic law) (Jazayery, 2002). The Taliban received support and funding from Saudi Arabia and Arab individuals in the quest to establish a pure Islamic model state (Poppelwell, 2007). The Taliban swept through Afghanistan encountering no resistance by the Mujahideen and were welcomed in many areas as they established relative security in the areas they controlled (Jazayery, 2002). By 1998, The Taliban had captured the majority of the country and established the â€Å"Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan† (Jazayery, 2002). A Northern Alliance that arose in opposition to the Taliban maintained a Government of the â€Å"Islamic State of Afghanistan† with Burhanuddin Rabbini as president (Jazayery, 2002). The Taliban Government was only recognized by Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates, while the Government of Rabbini maintained an officially represented seat at th e UN (Jazayery, 2002). After the bombings of the US Embassys in Kenya and Tanzania the Taliban were asked to stop harboring Osama bin Laden (Poppelwell, 2007). At their refusal, the UN imposed sanctions against the Taliban and Afghanistan in 1999 (Poppelwell, 2007). By this time the Taliban were known for disregarding international law and human rights (Poppelwell, 2007). During this time, killing, pillaging, raping, and ethnic cleansing of individuals occurred across Afghanistan by the Taliban regime (Jazayery, 2002). Post 2001 The events of 9/11 2001 led the US to lead Coalition Forces to invade Afghanistan on 7 October 2007. Within months the military forces had taken control of Afghanistan and declared the fall of the Taliban. The International Security and Assistance Forces (ISAF) in Afghanistan began with 5,000 troops. In 2003, NATO took over the ISAF, which now, due to increased security concerns, is comprised of approximately 50,000 troops coming from all 28 NATO members (NATO, 2009). In December 2001 a UN led interim administration was established under the Bonn Agreement. The Bonn Agreement established a new constitution and the first democratic elections in 2004 (Poppelwell, 2007). Hamid-Karzai, became the leader of a broad based thirty-member ethnic council that aimed to be multi-ethnic and representative of Afghan society (Poppelwell, 2007). The new administration faced many challenges and in 2005 the Taliban began to regain strength in Afghanistan. The increased security challenges led to the London Conference in January 2006 to address the end of the Bonn agreement and the current challenges in Afghanistan. The result of the London Conference was the Afghanistan Compact, which identified a five-year plan for Afghanistan. The Afghanistan Compact is based on three key pillars: â€Å"security, governance, the rule of law and human rights; economic and social development; and the cross-cutting issue of counter-narcotics† (Poppelwell, 2007, p. 8). Western Governments have taken on specific areas as a country lead for areas in which they will focus. The reconstruction process in Afghanistan has been extensive. A total of $14,775,000,000 US dollars has been contributed to the reconstruction process since 2001 (Livingston, Messera, and Shapiro, 2009). Despite the development efforts, insecurity has increased since 2005 with the Taliban regaining strength. The overall situation in Afghanistan continues to be characterized by conflict and poverty. Demographics A census has not been conducted in Afghanistan since prior to the Soviet invasion in 1978. Thus, all demographic information is estimates. In 2009, the CIA World Factbook estimated the population of Afghanistan to be 28.3 million. This was a significant decrease from the previous estimate of 33.6 million. An Afghanistan census is scheduled for 2010. The population growth rate in Afghanistan was estimated by the United Nations to be 3.9 percent 2005-2010 (UN Data, 2009). Economic and Poverty Overview Economic progress in Afghanistan is occurring through the reconstruction effort, however, Afghanistan continues to be one of the least developed and poorest countries in the world. Table 1 provides an overview of key economic and poverty indicators for Afghanistan in 2007. Real GDP growth for 2008-09 decelerated to 2.3 percent from 16.2 percent in 2007-08 (World Bank, 2009). This is the lowest GDP growth has been in the post-Taliban period and was due to poor agricultural production (World Bank, 2009). In 2009, however, growth is expected to increase due to a good agricultural harvest (World Bank, 2009). Table 1: Key Indicators GDP Per Capita (PPP US $) 1,054 Life Expectancy 43.6 Adult Literacy Rate (% aged 15 and above) 28.0 Combined Gross Enrolment Ration in Education 50.1 Human Poverty Index Rank 135.0 Probability at birth of not surviving to age 40 (% of cohort) 40.7 Population not using an improved water Source (%) 78.0 Children underweight for age (% under age 5) 39.0 Overseas Development Assistance per Capita (US$) 146.0 Source: UNDP, 2009 The latest poverty assessment in Afghanistan was conducted in 2005 through the National Risk and Vulnerability Assessment (NRVA). The findings indicate that the poverty rate was 42 percent, corresponding to 12 million people living below the poverty line (Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, 2009, p. 14). In addition, 20 percent of the population was slightly above the poverty line, suggesting that a small economic shock could place them below the poverty line (Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, 2009, p. 14). It is evident that widespread poverty continues to be a challenge in Afghanistan. Political Situation In August 2009, Afghanistan held it second democratic elections (World Bank, 2009). The incumbent President Hamid Karzai, was re-elected with 50 percent of the necessary votes, however, since the election there have been over 2,000 fraud allegations lodged with the Electoral Complaints Commission (ECC). The Independent Election Commission announced in October 2009 that its final results indicated less than 50 percent of the votes for Karzai. Thus, a run-off election was scheduled for November between Karzai and the lead opponent. Before the election, however, the opponent withdrew from the race leaving Karzai as President (World Bank, 2009). The United Nations Mission to Afghanistan has continued to coordinate international assistance and support the Afghan government in developing good governance. The key aspects of the UN Mission political mandate include: â€Å"preventing and resolving conflicts; building confidence and promoting national reconciliation; monitoring and advising on the political and human rights situation; investigating and making recommendations relating to human rights violations; maintaining a dialogue with Afghan leaders, political parties, civil society groups, institutions, and representatives of central, regional and provincial authorities; recommending corrective actions; and undertaking good offices when necessary to further the peace process† (UNAMA, 2009). The political situation in Afghanistan continues to be complex. In 2009, Transparency International rated Afghanistan 1.3 on the Global Corruption Perceptions Index (Transparency International, 2009). This was the second lowest ranking with only Somalia receiving a lower score. This suggests a high lack of trust in the Government of Afghanistan. Culture/ Ethnic Groups Afghanistan is a traditional and conservative society with large ethnic divisions. Table 2 shows the percentage of the population that belongs to the different ethnic groups. Table 2: Ethnic Groups in Afghanistan 1970s 2006 Pashtun 39.4 40.9 Tajik 33.7 37.1 Uzbeck 8 9.2 Hazara 8 9.2 Turkmen 3.3 1.7 Aimak 4.1 0.1 Baloch 1.6 0.5 Other 1.9 1.4 Source: The Asia Foundation, 2006; Encycopedia Iranica, 2009 The Pashtuns have generally been the majority in Afghanistan. They occupy land in the South and the East and are divided amoung tribal lines. The Tajiks are primarily Sunni Muslims who are Persian and occupy the Northeast and West of Afghanistan. The Tajiks are often well educated and landowners. The Uzbecks are descendents from the Turks and are primarily involved in agriculture. The Hazaras are primarily Shiite Muslims who occupy the infertile highlands in central Afghanistan. The Hazaras are subsistence farms that have used migration routes for survival for centuries (Robinson and Lipson, 2002). The vast majority of the population in Afghanistan is Sunni Muslim (87.9 percent). Shiia Muslims account for 10.4 percent of the population and the remaining ethnic groups are negligible in numbers. Shiia Muslims are thus a minority and have faced persecution in Afghanistan. Status of Women Afghanistans GDI (Gender Development Index) value is 0.310, which is 88.1 percent of its Human Development Index (HDI) (UNDP, 2009). The HDI does not account for gender inequality, and the GDI adds this component to the HDI. Afghanistan ranks 155 out of 155 countries measured in the world for its GDI. Indicators, such as literacy, illustrate this; 43.1 percent of adult males are literate, compared to 12.6 percent of adult females (UNDP, 2009). The culture of Afghanistan is a based on traditional gender roles. Traditionally, women are seen as embodying the honour of the family (World Bank, 2005). As such, women are given as brides to create peace, or to honour a relationship. The role of a wife is to maintain the household and support the husband, which includes domestic and sexual services. In general, a wife meets the husbands needs and if the wife does not she has dishonoured her family and community (World Bank, 2005). The legal rights of women in Afghanistan have changed with the political structure. Prior to Taliban rule, the Constitution of Afghanistan guaranteed women equal rights under the law, although local tribes may have had different customs. Under Taliban rule womens rights were severely hindered as they were not permitted to leave their homes unless accompanied by a close male relative, receive education, and had restricted access the health care and employment. Women were frequently raped and abused during this time. With the fall of the Taliban the situation has improved for women, however there are great differences between the rural and urban situation (World Bank, 2005). The Ministry of Womens Affairs (MOWA) was established in the Bonn Agreement to promote the advancement of women in Afghanistan. MOWA works in an advocacy role to ensure that policies are implemented for both men and women. In addition, MOWA works with NGOs to ensure programs for women are implemented. Womens rights remain to be a primary concern in Afghanistan. At present, approximately 60 percent of women are married before the age of 16 (IRIN, 2005). At 44, women in Afghanistan have one of the lowest life expectancies in the world (UNDP, 2009). Women who are widowed are ostracized in rural communities, but are often able to make a living in the cities to support themselves and their families. However, female-headed households tend to be primarily represented in the poorest quintiles of Afghan society (World Bank, 2005). The situation for women in the urban centres such as Kabul is becoming more liberal. Education rates of girls in the urban centres are high than rural areas and these indicators suggest changes are occurring for women in urban areas. Womens rights are high on the international policy agenda for Afghanistan and a key goal of development aid. 3. Historic Overview of Migration Migration in Afghanistan has had a long history and has significantly shaped the countries social and cultural landscape (Monsutti, 2007). Historically, Afghanistan was a country of trade between the east and the west and a key location on the Silk Road trade route. Thus, migration is a part of the historical identity of the country. The following chapter presents an overview of the complex migration patterns, with a historical perspective. Migration Patterns from Afghanistan to Pakistan and Iran Prior to 1978 Migration between Afghanistan and Pakistan and Iran has a long history. The migration relationships are rooted in the ethnic ties that span the borders between the countries. For instance, Pashtuns make up 20 percent of the population in Pakistan and 30 percent in Afghanistan. The Pashtuns are separated by the Pakistan-Afghanistan border, which is referred to as the Durand Line. The Durand Line was established during British colonialism to demarcate British India from Afghanistan, and has been acknowledged to be an arbitrary divide of Pashtun land (Monsutti, 2005). Thus, cross-border migration of the Pashtuns between Afghanistan and Pakistan has been a way of life. Similarly, the Hazaras of Afghanistan are Shiites Muslims, which is the majority religion in Iran (Monsutti, 2005). Hazaras regularly engaged in migration to and from Iran via religious ties. These ethnic and cultural ties led to cross-border migration for decades prior to the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan. The poor economic position of Afghanistan prior to 1978 led to further economic migration to the better off states of Pakistan and Iran. Stigter states, â€Å"The economic differences between Afghanistan and Pakistan and Iran have long led Afghans to migrate to these countries to find employment and, for Iran, enjoy the benefits of a higher income† (2006, p. 117). In the 1960s and 1970s industrialization in Afghanistan was minimal and there were limited opportunities for the newly educated and growing rural population (Stigter, 2006). A widespread drought in the 1970s led to large-scale crop failure and further migration of many Afghans from the north and north-western Afghanistan into Iran (Monsutti, 2006). In addition, the oil boom of 1973 caused further increasing numbers of Afghans to cross into Iran and other Middle Eastern countries to capitalize on the labour opportunities (Stigter, 2006). Studies have also confirmed that prior to the war migrants from Northern Afghanis tan travelled to Pakistan during the winter, illustrating that seasonal migration occurred between the two countries (Stigter, 2006 from CSSR, 2005). These pre-established migration movements reveal that social networks were established between Afghanistan and Pakistan and Iran prior to the Soviet Invasion and proceeding wars. Monsutti states that â€Å"Channels of pre-established transnational networks exist between Afghanistan, Pakistan and Iran- the movement of individuals to seek work, to escape drought or to flee war has been a common experience in Afghanistan† (Monsutti, 2006, p. 6-7). Thus, it can be deduced that migration to Pakistan and Iran was a natural option for many Afghans. International Migration Post 1978 International migration movements from Afghanistan from 1978 have primarily been comprised of refugee flows. The vast majority of refugees fled to Pakistan and Iran in the largest refugee crises of the late 20th Century. 1 shows the number of Afghan refugees in Pakistan and Iran from 1979-2001. 1 illustrates that refugee outflows from Afghanistan began in 1979 with the Soviet Invasion. The outflows continued to increase during the Soviet occupation when there was civil war between the US funded Mujahideen and the Soviet backed Najibullah. Flows during this time spanned social classes and ethnic groups as the initial reason for migration was primarily protection led. However, reasons of a lack of economic opportunities, devastation of infrastructure and trade networks, limited access to social services such as healthcare and education, and political and social reasons also contributed to migration flows (Stigter, 2006). Migration was thus not only refugee protection, but also the need to make a livelihood (Stigter, 2006). The peak of the refugee flows occurred in 1990 with 6.2 million Afghan refugees. This was after the Soviet withdrawal and when the Najibullah remained in power (Jazayery, 2002, p. 240). In the 1990s drought contributed to continuing refugee flows from Afghanistan (Stigter, 2006). The fall of the Najibullah in 1992 led to large-scale repatriation. However, with the Taliban gaining power in 1996, the number of refugees began to increase again to approximately 3.8 million refugees in 2001. During the initial refugee outflows in 1979 both Pakistan and Iran warmly welcomed the refugees under a banner Muslim solidarity (Monsutti, 2006). Iran is a signatory and Pakistan is not a signatory to the 1951 Convention of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol, however both countries welcomed the refugees. In Iran the refugees were given identification cards, allowed access to work, health care, food, free primary and secondary education, and were free to settle where they chose (Monsutti, 2006). Pakistan created an agreement with the United Nations to provide services to the Afghan refugees and received financial support from the international community (Monsutti, 2006). The era of welcoming Afghan refugees began to change in 1989. In Pakistan refugees were still welcomed from 1989-2001, but were not provided with the same level of services and facilitation (Monsutti, 2006). In Iran support also decreased and by the 1990s refugees no longer received identity cards and assistance (Monsutti, 2006). The position of the host countries became increasingly unfriendly post 2001, which will be discussed in the next chapter of this paper. Return Migration The Mujahideen took over the government in 1992 and as a result nearly 2 million refugees returned to Afghanistan. By 1997 an estimated 4 million refugees had returned from Pakistan and Iran (Stigter, 2006). Simultaneously, however, conflicts between rival Mujahideen groups dissuaded many refugees from returning, and created new refugees and IDPs. Internal Migration The primary source of internal migration in Afghanistan was Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs). Internally Displaced Persons Internal displacement flows have followed a similar trajectory as refugee flows. The exact number of IDPs is not known and 3 shows estimated number of IDPs in Afghanistan from 1985-2001. Generally those who are internally displaced do not have the means to cross an international border. IDPs in Afghanistan had access to very few services during this period. The UNHCRs capacity in Afghanistan began to increase after 1992 as is illustrated in 3 by the red line. From 1995 the two lines start to converge as the number of IDPs assisted by UNHCR increases and the total number of IDPs decreases. By 2001 the number of IDPs has significantly increased to 1.2 million. The number of IDPs in Afghanistan will be further examined in the next chapter. 4. Current Migration Patterns- 2001- Present Current migration patterns in Afghanistan are complex and multifaceted. Since 2001 Afghanistan has witnessed the largest movement of refugee return in UNHCRs history (Monsutti, 2008). These flows have been a mixture of voluntary and forced return of refugees who had been outside of Afghanistan for varying periods. The majority of returnees are from Pakistan. Afghan refugees have maintained ties with Pakistan and now cross-border labour migration between Afghanistan and Pakistan is increasing. In addition to international flows, the numbers of IDPs have decreased in Afghanistan since 2001 as IDPs return to their regions of origin. Finally, within this picture there are large flows of rural-urban migration as returnees and non-returnees find limited opportunities in rural areas and move to the cities in search of work. All of these flows are occurring simultaneously and present a complex picture of current migration patterns and flows. Each of these areas will be addressed in the follo wing section. Internal Migration Internal migration flows in Afghanistan have been increasing in the post-Taliban period. As refugees and migrants return to Afghanistan they do not necessarily end their migration cycle. Returnees may continue to migrate internally in search of livelihoods and opportunities. The internal migration flows in Afghanistan are comprised of IDPs, rural to urban migration, and trafficking. Internally Displaced Persons Internal displacement in Afghanistan has been understudied and information is limited to availability from the UNHCR. In 2004, the UNHCR conducted a data profiling of IDPs in UNHCR assisted camps and in 2008 the UNHCR created a national profile of IDPs in Afghanistan. Statistics regarding IDPs are estimates[1]. Table 3 shows the number of IDPs and IDP returnees from 2001 to 2008. At the fall of the Taliban in 2001 there were approximately 1.2 million IDPs in Afghanistan, of which many returned spontaneously in 2002 (UNHCR, 2008, p. 6). In 2008, IDP returns were negligible due to continued insecurity, inter-tribal and personal conflict, landlessness and drought, and lack of job opportunities and basic services in rural areas (UNHCR, 2008). Table 3: IDPs Total and Returns: 2001-2008 IDPs IDP Returnees Year Total Assisted Total Assisted 2001 1,200,000 2002 665,200 753,300 2003 184,300 2004 159,500 27,400 2005 143,000 17,000 8,600 2006 129,300 129,300 10,400 10,400 2007 153,700 153,700 8,000 8,000 2008 230,700 230,700 6,500 4,000 Total 2,865,700 513,700 822,600 31,000 Source: UNHCR Global Reports, 2001-2008 Of the current IDPs (235,000) the UNHCR identifies 132,000 as a protracted caseload (2008). Table 4 shows the reasons for displacement of the current IDP population. These numbers do not include those who are invisible IDPs or urban unidentified IDPs. UNHCR estimates that the actual number of IDPs in Afghanistan is substantially larger than the numbers suggest (2008, p. 18). Table 4: Reason for Displacement of Current IDPs (2008) Reason for Displacement No. of Families No. of Individuals Protracted 31,501 166,153 New Drought affected 1,083 6,598 New Conflict Affected 1,749 9,901 Returnees in Displacement 8,737 52,422 Battle-affected 127 759 Total 43,197 235,833 Source: UNHCR, 2008 Since 2007 the return of IDPs has continued to decrease due to increased instability in the country, drought, landlessness, and the spread of conflict and insurgency areas (IDMC, 2008). Disputes are arising between IDPs and locals as in Afghan culture if you are not born in the region you do not belong there (IDMC, 2008). Options for IDPs appear to be limited as they are not welcomed in the regions where they are seeking protection. Rural to Urban Migration Urbanization is rapidly occurring in Afghanistan as returnees settle in the cities and people migrate from rural communities to urban centres. Approximately 30 percent of returnees settle in Kabul (Stigter, 2006). The population of Kabul in 2001 was roughly 500,000 and it had grown to over 3 million by 2007 (IRIN, 2007). The urban centres do not have the infrastructure or resources to meet the needs of the large inflows of migrants, however, research suggest that the difficult situations in the cities are better than rural areas. In 2005 the Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit conducted a study on rural to urban migration (Opel, 2005). A total of 500 migrants were interviewed in the cities of Kabul, Herat, and Jalalabad. The majority of migrants were male (89 percent) and the average age of migrants was 31 years (p. 4). Males tend to migrate to support their families, and females migrate when they have lost their husbands or have been ostracized by their community and have no means of supporting themselves in rural areas. The majority did not own productive assets in their village (71.2 percent), although 43 percent owned a house in their village (p. 8). The primary reasons for migration were the lack or work in the village and better opportunities in town (42%), followed by lack of work in the village (38.2%) and insecurity (16.3%) (p. 11). The majority of migrants made the journey on their own (70.7%) and paid for the journey from their savings (p.14). Migration to urban areas is expensive and the poor est of the poor cannot afford the journey. Once in the cities, the majority were employed in low skilled day labour work and on average respondents reported working 16 out of the past 30 days (p. 20). Social networks were essential in people finding work as 89 percent of skilled workers and 60 percent of unskilled workers reported receiving assistance from a relative, friend or neighbour (p. 20). Incomes in the cities were low, but were higher than what individuals could earn in the rural areas. The majority of urban migrants remitted money to their family in rural areas, which they carried with them when they returned or sent through family or friends. None of the urban migrants use the Hawala (see Chapter 6) system, which was reported to be too expensive for them. The majority of migrants reported planning to settle in the city (55%) (p. 26). Overall, the majority did improve their economic situation through migration (61.9% for males and 80.9% for females) (p. 27). The large-scale migration to urban centers appears to be a trend that will continue. It is estimated that urban centers are now accounting for 30 percent of the population in Afghanistan (Opel, 2005). The rapid urbanization has shifted rural poverty to urban poverty (Stigter, 2006) and many challenges remain for the cities in managing the rapid growth. National Trafficking In 2003 the IOM in Afghanistan conducted a study on trafficking of Afghan women and children. Research on trafficking in Afghanistan is difficult due to the lack of data inherent in all areas of Afghanistan, but increasingly so due to the fear of reporting trafficking related crimes and the shame associated with such

Non-conventional Sources of Energy: An Analysis

Non-conventional Sources of Energy: An Analysis CONSERVATION OF ENERGY Energy is a primary input in any industrial operation. Energy is also a major input in sectors such as commerce, transport, telecommunication, etc besides the wide range of services required in the household industrial sectors. (A) What Do We Mean by Alternative Energy? The alternative-energy segment of the energy industry covers a broad range of sources. These sources range from well established technologies, such as nuclear energy and hydroelectric power, through high-growth segments such as wind and solar power. They also include less tried and tested alternatives, such as hydrogen-powered, fuel-cell technology for use in electricity generation (7) Renewable sources of energy: It is that energy which is renewed again again. These include wood obtained from forests, petroplants , plant biomass agricultural wastes, wind energy,water energy, geothermal energy, these can reproduce themselves in nature can be harvested continusiously through a sustained proper planning management(B) Non renewable sources of energy: These are available in limited amount develop over a long period of time. They are exhausted one day.these include coal,oil,petroleum, the common source of energy being organic in their origin also called fossil fuel.( B) Conventional source of energy: In most of the fuel wood was consumed for domestic purposes mainly in rural areas, very little of it was available to industrial sector. Coal already in use in industries become a highly priced source. It was then supplemented by mineral oil. Likewise the use of hydro-electricity become dearer the areas where running water needed technology was readily available. After 2nd world war nuclear power was developed. All these sources of energy. All these sources of energy are known as conventional sources of energy. Coal still occupies a central position. (B) Non conventional sources of energy: Non renewable of energy could exhaust one day. Most non renewable sources cause environmental pollution We must conserve non renewable sources by replacing with renewable sources. (B) CONSERVATION OF ENERGY Renewable sources of energy: Non renewable sources of energy: Conventional source of energy Non conventional sources of energy Sources of ener Sources of energy: Primary Secondry 1: primary sources are those which we get from environment.Eg. fossil fuel, nuclear fuel, hydro energy, solar energy, wind energy. 2: secondry sources are those which are derived from primary energy resource. Eg. Petrol, electrical energy, coal burning . (A) Conventional sources of energy: Coal: The heat capacity can be converted into the electricity gas , oil. therefore many thermal super thermal powerstation are located on the coal fields to produce electric power to feeds regional grids.(A) Oil : it was formed more than 300 million year ago. Tiny diatoms are the source of oil. Diatoms are the sea creature in the size of pin head. Diatoms are dead they fell into the sea floor. They buried under the rocks. The rock squeeze the diatoms the energy in the bodies could not escape. The carbon eventually turned into oil under great pressure heat. Oil natural gas are found under ground between rocks in areas where rocks are porous.(C) Natural gas: It is lighter than air . It is made up of methane (made up of carbon hydrogen atoms ch-4). It is found near the petroleum under the earth. It has no odour.it is usually mix with a gas that has strong odour like rotten eggs.(C) NUCLEAR FUSION If light nuclei are forced together, they will fuse with a yield of energy because the mass of the combination will be less than the sum of the masses of the individual nuclei. If the combined nuclear mass is less than that of iron at the peak of the binding energy curve, then nuclear particles will be more tightly bound than they were in the lighter nuclei, and that decrease in mass comes off in the form of the energy according to the Einstein relationship. For elements heavier than iron, fission will yield energy. For potential nuclear energy sources for the Earth, the deuterium-tritium fusion reaction contained by some kind of magnetic confinement seems the most likely path. However, for the fuelling of the stars, other fusion reactions will dominate. (c) NUCLEAR FISSION The nucleus captures the neutron, it splits into two lighter atoms and throws off two or three new neutrons. The two new atoms then emit gamma radiation as they settle into their new states. There are three things about this induced fission -the probability of a U-235 atom capturing a neutron as it passes by is fairly high. -the process of capturing the neutron and splitting happens very quickly, in the order of picoseconds -An incredible amount of energy is released in the form of heat and gamma radiation, when a single atom splits. The two atoms that result from the fission later release beta radiation and gamma radiation of their own as well. The energy released by a single fission Comes from the fact that the fission products and the neutrons, together, weigh less than the original U-235 atom. The difference in weight is converted directly to energy at a rate governed by the equation e=mc2 (C) NUCLEAR REACTOR (1)Light water reactor-We use ordinary water for colling and moderisation these are basic 2 types boiling water reactor pressurised water reactor There are also high temperature gas called reactors which basically of l.w.r type (2):heavy water reactor: the most popular one has been Canadian deuterium uranium reactor. The design is difficult from that of lwr type. The fuel is arranged horizontally rather than the vertically as in l.w.r. (3):liquid metal fast breeder reactor: here we use liquid sodium as the coolent. There are 300 atomic power plant ,operating in world. Max in use (83), Ussr (40), up (35), France(34),Japan 25, Germany 15, Canada 13 India is rich in atomic mineral. Uranium mines are located in singbum in bihar parts of bihar Most abudent source is monazite sands on the shores of kerala. Thorium is derived from these sands. Nuclear power corporation is engaged with the establishment of nucleus. Power plants: 6 nuclear power plants in operation generating 1230 mwe(single individual plant is 210-235mwe). (b) Advantages Nuclear energy has a number of positives going for it. First, it does not give off carbon emissions, earning it supporters in the environmental community among those concerned about global warming. second, once reactors are built, it is very cost effective to keep them running at high capacity and for utilities to address demand fluctuations by cutting back on usage of fossil fuels. Third, nuclear plants tend to last a long time and many existing plants have become more efficient over time, reducing their demand for uranium.and represent reliable sources of supply Disadvantages There are a number of disadvantages to the nuclear-power option. These include not only the safety questions but also some economic and supply-related questions that are currently being debated by those for and opposed to renewal of outdated power plants or an expansion of the sector.In terms of safety, two issues are regularly debated. First, the issue of nuclear waste and, second, concerns over potential terrorist attacks on nuclear power plants. The first objection may be overcome through the introduction of new types of power plants, such as the pebble-bed modular reactor. This type of reactor uses graphite balls flecked with tiny amounts of uranium, rather than conventional fuel rods. With the fuel encased in graphite and impermeable silicon carbide, the theory is that the waste should be relatively easy to dispose of. The terrorism fears are less easily addressed and may ultimately stall the construction of new plants in countries such as the U.S., where these worries are great est. Among economic concerns is the question of construction costs. Although the cost of energy produced by existing nuclear plants is competitive, the upfront capital costs of constructing new plants are extremely high, calculated at $1,300-$1,500 per kilowatt- hour, or twice the amount it costs to construct a gas-fired power station(F) Non Conventional energy source SOLAR ENERGY Two weeks of solar energy is roughly equivalent to the energy stored in all known reserves of coal.oil and natural gas on the earth. Solar energy may be directly used either by active solar system or passive solar system. Another potentially important aspect 0f direct solar energy involves solar cells or photovoltaic that convert sunlight directly into electricity. Two other type of solar energy are the solar power tower and solar ponds.(b) There are two main ways to harness the power of the sun to generate electricity: photovoltaic (PV), where sunlight is directly converted into electricity via solar cells, and solarthermal power. PV is a proven technology that is most appropriate for small-scale applications to provide heat and power to individual houses and businesses. Sunlight falls on a layer of semiconductors, which jostles electrons. This, in turn, creates an electrical current that can be used as a source for heat. Solar PV cells are already cost effective for powering houses and businesses in some regions. As with wind power, technological developments have reduced costs considerably over the last few years. Unlike wind power, however, largescale electricity production using solar energy costs about 22 cents per kilowatt-hour, significantly more expensive than its fossil fuel competitors and nuclear energy. Hopes to reduce these costs lie with newer technologies. Solar-thermal generated energy is only just emerging from the experimental stage to full-scale electricity production. Solar-thermal power concentrates the sun to heat up fuel such as gas or oil. The heat trapped within is then used to convert water into steam, which powers a conventional steam turbine to generate electricity. Fossil fuels are sometimes used as a back-up to heat the water in the boiler if the sun is not shining. There are three different methods for concentrating the suns rays: Parabolic Trough — This method uses long, parallel rows of glass mirrors in the shape of a trough to concentrate the suns rays toward the â€Å"absorber tube† — usually filled with oil — to maximum effect. Power Tower — Similar in principle to parabolic-trough technology, the mirrors are placed in a circular pattern. At the center of the circle is a tower, at the top of which is a receiver filled with water, air, liquid metal or molten salt that moves to a power block and is used to power a steam turbine. Parabolic Disk System — In this system, dishes rather than troughs are used to concentrate the power of the sun. An example of this type of solar project is the 500-megawatt Solar Energy Systems plant being constructed in the Mojave Desert in California. By the end of 2006, the company expects to begin supplying electricity to Southern California Edison (SCE), but will not be fully operational until 2011, when it may account for as much as a 20 percent increase in SCEs electricity generation from renewables(F) Advantages In spite of its cost versus other sources of energy, solar power is attracting interest due to the following: Solar energy makes use of a renewable natural resource that is readily available in many parts of the world. The process used to generate solar energy is emission-free. Technological advances have reduced costs to a point that it can compete with fossil fuel alternatives in specific circumstances. The technology is scalable in that it can be used fordomestic heating purposes or on a larger scale for commercial electricity generation, as solar water heaters are an established technology, widely available and simple to install and maintain Disadvantages The biggest barriers to increasing solar power generation are the cost, the amount of land required for large-scale electricity production, and the intermittent nature of the energy source.In terms of the latter, thermal systems do not work at night or in inclement weather. Storage of hot water for domestic or commercial use is simple, needing only insulated tanks, but storage of the higher-temperature liquids needed to generate electricity on a large scale — or storage of the electricity itself — requires further technological development(F) WIND ENERGY In the country there are areas which are quite windy. Wind energy may be converted into mechanical electrical energy. Now, wind has been utilized for pumping water in rural areas. Wind energy is useful in remote areas helps in saving fossils fuels, would deliver on the spot small quantity of energy which is free pollution environmental degradation.Gujrat is first to starts using wind power. Advantages There are a number of notable advantages associated with wind power: It is a clean, renewable energy source. There is no fuel component, so once built there is no a finite fuel supply or costs associated with such a supply. Wind power can be generated in remote areas, including out in the oceans. It is scalable in that it can be used to generate power in a local area or even at the individual property level, but can also generate large amounts of power that can be added to an electricity grid system.. For land-based wind farms, once the wind towers are installed, the land area around them can be used for other purposes, such as agricultural use. Disadvantages As with any source of energy, there are some drawbacks to wind power. The most significant is that the wind to drive the turbines may be intermittent and that it does not always blow when electricity is needed. Wind energy may only be available 40 percent of the year in some areas versus 90 percent for a fossil-fuel powered plant. New blade design can overcome this problem to a certain extent, as can storing the energy in batteries, but because of these potential drawbacks, the site of the wind farm is key to its success and vice versa.(F) OCEAN ENERGY (TIDAL ENERGY) Tidal power generation depends on the harnessing of rise and fall of sea level due to tidal action. Small tidal power plants have been constructed in china USSR. The most important application of tidal power is electricity generation. In India sites exploitation of tidal energy are gulfs of kutch kombay sunderbans. India could intensify work on ocean thermal energy conversion wave energy. The country is already experience with exploiting tidal energy. The central electricity authority Gujrat electricity board carried out site studies for establishment of tidal plants in golf of kutch. India has excellent OTEC potential some of the best sites in world are known to be located off the Indian mainland island of lakshdeep Andoman nicobar. Total OTEC potential in India is 50000mW which is about 150% of installed power generated capacity in India. PRESENT USES Tidal power has on a small scale been used throughout the history of mankind. It was not until twentieth century that large-scale tidal projects were considered. Today, sites suitable for the utilisation of tidal power exist in many places around the world. DISADVANTAGES -Not yet economically feasible. -Problems with transportation of hydroelectricity. -Technology not developed. ADVANTAGES -Renewable resource. -No pollution. -Produced 24 hours a day and 365 days a year. -Peak output coincides with peak energy demand.(c) Fuel cell Production of electricity by thermal plants is not a very efficient method and is major source of pollution. It now possible to make such in which reactants sre fed continuously to the electrodes and products are removed continuously from the electrolyte compartment. Galvanic cell that are designed to convert theenergy of combustion of fuels like hydrogen, methane, methanol,etc. directly into electrical energy are called fuel cell. One of the most successful fuel cell uses the reaction hydrogen with oxygen to form water. The cell was used for providing electrical power in Apollo space programme. The water vapours produced during the reaction were condensed and added to the drinking water supply for the astronauts. In the cell, hydrogen and oxygen are bubbled through porous carbon electrodes into concentrated aqueous sodium hydroxide solution. Catalyst like finally divided platinum metal are incorporated into the electrodes for increasing the rate of electrode reaction. Efficiency is 70%compared to thermal plant whose efficiency is 40%.(E) A fuel cell that runs on pure oxygen hydrogen produces no waste product. when a reformer is coupled to the fuel cell some pollutant are released(co2)but levels are typically less than conventional fossil fuel combustion in a power plant or an auto-mobile engine.fuel cell could be ideal zero emission power source for vehicle. Fuel cell busses could be tested in a Canada. The current from a fuel cell is proportional to the size of electrode voltage is limited (1.23). Tiny fuel cell running on methanol might used in cell phone, pager, toys, computer, now run by batteries. Bio fuel: based on fuel derived from organic biomass from recently living animals or plants or their by products, has transformed from a niche alternative to fossil fuels (e.g., gasoline, diesel) to become a booming industry. Any liquid that stores energy, which is typically utilized by an engine or generator, can be called a â€Å"fuel.† The term â€Å"bio fuels† encompasses a wide range of fuels, including vegetable oils, animal fats, ethanol, biodiesel (any oil or fat that undergoes trans esterification to more closely resemble mineral-based fuel), and syn fuel (fuel made from gasi fied organic matter, then liquefied to form fuel). The main common trait of all these fuels is that they are derived from organic biomass, rather than minerals. Bio fuels are made using a fairly simple process that typically involves harvesting feedstock, or the raw materials (e.g., soybeans, sugarcane), crushing the feedstock, separating the dry matter from the oil, then re-crushing and/or further processing to extract as much oil as possible. The resulting oil can then either be directly consumed (e.g., by vehicles with specially designed engines), further processed (e.g., into biodiesel), or blended with mineral-based fuel before being delivered to the end user at gas stations and depots around the world (the most common blends in the U.S. are E10 (10% percent ethanol blend) and E85 (85% ethanol blend). Only some biofuels, most notably biodiesel, can be used in traditional internal combustion engines. Other biofuels, such as ethanol, must be blended with mineral-based fuel in order to be used in existing engines. The most common inputs into biofuels vary by country. In the U.S., corn and soybeans are most prevalent, while Europe tends to use flaxseed and rapeseed, Brazil sugarcane, and Asia palm oil. Brazil is in many ways the pioneer of the biofuels industry, having introduced ethanol from sugarcane (and flexfuel vehicles capable of running on ethanol) over 25 years ago as method to reduce dependence on oil imports. a fuel cell uses a catalyst to create a reaction between hydrogen from a fuel and oxygen from the air to generate electricity, with the only byproduct being water. Such fuel cells can be used for power generation and as a replacement for the combustion engine to run cars and other vehicles. Fuel cells have long been used in the U.S. space program, but until the past few years have proved prohibitively expensive for civilian use. Interest in fuel cells was reignited in the late 1990s, as companies began to make breakthroughs in technology. Large automotive manufacturers, such as General Motors and Daimler Chrysler, also started investing in fuel-cell companies and began to design concept fuel-cell powered vehicles. Development, thus far, has focused primarily on protonexchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells. This type of fuel cell uses a polymer membrane to separate two subcells, one fed with hydrogen and one with oxygen (through air). On the hydrogen side, the hydrogen breaks down into pr otons and electrons, and the protons migrate through the membrane into the oxygen side. The electrons, on the other hand, are forced to detour through wire connecting metal plates, resulting in a reaction that creates electricity. Other types of cells include the molten-carbonate fuel cell, which is the most efficient design but is very complex and only economical when generating more than 200 kilowatts. Westinghouse is developing a competing design, the solidoxide fuel cell, which operates at extremely high temperatures and has the added advantage that waste heat can be used to drive an auxiliary gas turbine.(F) What are the Challenges to Large-Scale Hydrogen Production? One of the biggest challenges to moving towards large-scale adoption of the â€Å"hydrogen economy† is production of hydrogen itself. A question often raised is whether it takes more energy to produce the hydrogen than you get back when you either drive the car or use it to power a building. There are currently three ways to produce hydrogen: Natural gas, coal, wood and organic waste burn with air and steam at extremely high temperatures. When cooled, the resulting gases contain a significant amount of hydrogen. An electrical current is passed between two electrodes (anelectrolyzer) immersed in water. Hydrogen rises up from the negative electrode and oxygen from the positive electrode. Some bacteria reportedly produce hydrogen, but this method has yet to be exploited commercially The first of these options has traditionally been the most cost-effective. That it still requires the burning of fossil fuels, combined with the rising price for natural gas, however, makes it less attractive as a long-term solution. The second option is simple to establish and can be done on a small or large scale nearest the point where the hydrogen may be needed. However, it also has a major drawback. Although this method has a 98 percent efficiency rate, when you factor in the voltage of the fuel cell, you get back only 40 percent of what you put in There are two powerful arguments for converting electricity into hydrogen, in spite of the inefficiency of the process: The first is the â€Å"use it or lose it† principle. Electrical power itself cannot be stored in its pure form; it needs to be converted to something else. Just as surplus nuclear and gas-fired power stations may store unused power by using it to pump water back up inside a damper as part of an integrated electrical storage system in combination with a hydroelectric power plant, hydrogen can be similarly used to store unused electrical power. Second, electricity stored as hydrogen is versatile. Not only can it be used for re-electrification, it also can potentially be used as fuel for cars or for producing heat. Why Fuel Cells? Fuel cells directly convert the chemical energy in hydrogen to electricity, with pure water and potentially useful heat as the only byproducts. Hydrogen-powered fuel cells are not only pollution-free, but also can have two to three times the efficiency of traditional combustion technologies. A conventional combustion-based power plant typically generates electricity at efficiencies of 33 to 35 percent, while fuel cell systems can generate electricity at efficiencies up to 60 percent (and even higher with cogeneration). The gasoline engine in a conventional car is less than 20% efficient in converting the chemical energy in gasoline into power that moves the vehicle, under normal driving conditions. Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, which use electric motors, are much more energy efficient and use 40-60 percent of the fuels energy — corresponding to more than a 50% reduction in fuel consumption, compared to a conventional vehicle with a gasoline internal combustion engine. In addition, fuel cells operate quietly, have fewer moving parts, and are well suited to a variety of applications. How Do Fuel Cells Work? A single fuel cell consists of an electrolyte sandwiched between two electrodes, an anode and a cathode. Bipolar plates on either side of the cell help distribute gases and serve as current collectors. In a Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) fuel cell, which most promising for light-duty transportation, hydrogen gas flows through channels to the anode, where a catalyst causes the hydrogen molecules to separate into protons and electrons. The membrane allows only the protons to pass through it. Comparison of Fuel Cell Technologies In general, all fuel cells have the same basic configuration — an electrolyte and two electrodes. But there are different types of fuel cells, classified primarily by the kind of electrolyte used. The electrolyte determines the kind of chemical reactions that take place in the fuel cell, the temperature range of operation, and other factors that determine its most suitable applications.(7)